Jennifer+Kowitt

**Infusing the Middle School Curriculum with Self-Determination**
 * April 26, 2012 **

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 **Introduction**  Self-determination is an important aspect of the transition process and should be part of the education of all students with disabilities. Self-determination has been linked with successful, happy adult life for individuals with disabilities. Typically, instruction in self-determination begins when students with special needs start t o consider the transition from high school into work, postsecondary education, and independent living.

Little instructional time is devoted to self-determination before students enter high school. This is unfortunate because self-determination is a complex concept with multiple components and that develops over a lifetime. Students who learn to be self-determined early have time to practice these skills before adulthood. This resource is designed to present middle school teachers with ways to incorporate self-determination instruction into their content area instruction. This resource serves to answer the following questions:
 * What is self-determination?
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Why is self-determination so important to students with disabilities?
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Can we teach self-determination to young students?
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">How do teachers value self-determination instruction?
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">How can teachers infuse self-determination instruction and practice into their content area curriculum?

=<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**What is Self-Determination?** = <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Self-determination is an umbrella term encompassing a wide range of skills, strategies, and beliefs. These include (Wehmeyer, Sands, Doll, and Palmer, 1997):
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">choice making
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">decision making
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">problem solving
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">goal setting and attainment
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">self-observation
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">self-evaluation
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">self-reinforcement
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">self-instruction
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">self-advocacy and leadership
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">internal locus of control
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">positive attributions of efficacy and outcome expectancy
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">self-awareness
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">self-knowledge

<span style="display: block; font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">There are many and varying definitions of self-determination, which emphasize different components. Leaders in the field of self-determination have collaborated on the following definition: <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;"><span style="color: #1cce5d; display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">Self-determination is a combination of skills, knowledge, and beliefs that enable a person to engage in goal directed, self-regulated, autonomous behavior. An understanding of one’s strengths and limitations together with a belief in oneself as capable and effective are essential to self-determination. When acting on the basis of skills and attitudes, individuals have greater ability to take control of their lives and assume the role of successful adults. (Field, Martin, Miller, Ward, and Wehmeyer, 1998, p. 2)

<span style="display: block; font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">media type="youtube" key="wrNy_2ljVdo" height="315" width="420" <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Youth present the "Self-Determination Youth Credo," which they developed during the 2008 Self-Determination Youth Summit in Roanoke, Virginia. <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wrNy_2ljVdo <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;"> <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">While the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 2004 (IDEA) does not outwardly mention or mandate self-determination, aspects of self-determination are central to its goals. For example, IDEA states that transition services must take into account an individual’s strengths, preferences, and interests (Sec. 602). Knowing one’s strengths, preferences, and interests is an important aspect of self-determination. <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Additionally, successful student involvement in IEP meetings centers on self-determination. According to IDEA, whenever appropriate, students are to participate in their IEP meetings. The student’s participation is mandatory when the purpose of the IEP meeting is to discuss transition services. For students to define and share future goals and dreams during an IEP meeting, they must be developed self-determined.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">__Self-Determination Web Resources__ - adapted from Konrad, Walker, Fowler, Test, and Wood (2008)

<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Advocating Change Together - self-advocacy organization run by and for people with disabilities; includes products for teaching self-advocacy.

Zarrow Center at the University of Oklahoma - includes presentations on self-determination topics.

[|Beach Center] at the University of Kansas - includes definitions and interventions for teaching self-determination.

[|Self-Determination Synthesis and the Self- Advocacy Synthesis] - descriptions of self-determination curricula, lesson-plan starters, and a directory of model programs.

[|Self-Determination Technical Assistance Center] - descriptions of exemplar programs, presentations and materials developed by teachers, and student-developed presentations for their IEP meetings.

=<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**Starting Self-Determination Instruction Early** =

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<span style="color: black; display: block; font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Students who are self-determined have more positive adult outcomes. Self-determined students are employed at a higher rate and earn more than their peers who are not self-determined (Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997). A self-determined mindset is important for living a rewarding, satisfying life (Madaus, Gerber, & Price, 2008). Lachapelle et al. (2005) found that self-determination and quality of life are linked, with characteristics of self-determination predicting high quality of life. <span style="color: black; display: block; font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Although, self-determination is critical to lifelong success, research and instruction in self-determination focus on the high school level. This is unfortunate as self-determination develops throughout the lifespan. Palmer and Wehmeyer (2003) state that “starting the process of becoming self-determined before adolescence gives added time for building the children’s capacity for choice, decision making, goal setting, and problem solving that are essential for later self-determination” (p. 116). When provided with the right instruction, students of all ages can acquire the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that contribute to self-determination (Stang, Carter, Lane, & Pierson, 2009). For a student to leave high school having internalized self-determination, he or she must have been given time to learn and practice while in school. Self-determination instruction must begin in middle school or even earlier. <span style="color: black; display: block; font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Research shows that even young students can learn to be self-determined. Numerous studies have found that elementary students can improve their self-determination or learn component skills of self-determination through a range of interventions (e.g., Glago, Mastropieri, & Scrugs, 2009; Mazzotti, Wood, Test, & Fowler, 2010; Palmer & Wehmeyer, 2003).

=<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">** How Teachers Perceive Self-Determination and its Instruction ** =

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Recent research finds that middle school teachers believe it is important to teach self-determination to their students with disabilities (Stang, Carter, Lane, & Pierson, 2009). However, Stang, Carter, Lane, and Pierson (2009) found that problem solving, self-management, and self-regulation were the only components of self-determination that more than half of the teachers surveyed reported teaching with regularity. Self-advocacy, leadership, self-awareness, and self-knowledge were reported to be taught the least frequently.

Furthermore, there are discrepancies between teacher perception of importance and actual instruction of self-determination ( Stang, Carter, Lane, & Pierson, 2009). The extent to which teachers provide opportunities for self-determination in their classrooms appears to be very variable. Elementary and middle school teachers have cited limited professional development opportunities, competing instructional demands, insufficient resources, student resistance, and limited administrator support as barriers to providing self-determination instruction (Stang, Carter, Lane, & Pierson, 2009). Classroom teachers worry that introducing an entire curriculum on self-determination will take away from instructional time needed for other content (Palmer and Wehmeyer, 2003).



There are many resources on the internet available to help teachers teach self-determination to middle school students. These include I'm Determined and the National Gateway to Self-Determination.

__<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">I'm Determined __ <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">http://www.imdetermined.org/educators/ <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The I'm Determined Educators' page provides tools and resources to support implementation of I’m Determined materials. These resources are organized by elementary or secondary level. Tools include checklists for teachers, instructions for helping students participate in their IEP meetings, and self-determination assessment materials, which teachers can use to determine their students’ specific self-determination needs. Also on this page, are interviews with teachers about how self-determination has changed their practice in the classroom.

__<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">National Gateway to Self-Determination __ http://www.aucd.org/NGSD/template/topic.cfm <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The resources guide on the National Gateway to Self-Determination website allows you to search materials by age-level. Teachers can therefore find information for resources specifically pertaining to middle school students. This site also includes a number of instructional videos.

=<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**Self-Determination and the General Education Curriculum** =

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The Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act (2004) and the No Child Left Behind Act (2002) state that the general education classroom offers substantial benefits for students with disabilities. Whenever possible, the general education classroom should the primary location for instruction for students with disabilities. In order for students with disabilities to receive ample instruction and practice, self-determination instruction must be part of the general education curriculum (Stang, Carter, Lane, & Pierson, 2009).

Many curricula exist to teach self-determination in isolation. The [|Self-Determination Synthesis Project] provides a list of different available curricula with corresponding self-determination skills of focus. However, as stated above, teachers worry that introducing an entire curriculum on self-determination will take away from instructional time needed to meet content demands (Palmer and Wehmeyer, 2003). Therefore a major barrier to teaching self-determination is teachers' not knowing how to teach self-determination while simultaneously teaching reading, writing, and math (Konrad, Walker, Fowler, Test, & Wood, 2008).

One solution is for teachers to infuse their extant curriculum with opportunities for students to learn and practice self-determination. Blum, Lipsett, and Yocom (2002) suggest that a classroom environment must be created to allow for this kind of learning to take place and that students should assume more responsibilities in their educational programs. Self-determined students could match their learning styles to their educational and social needs and make choices about the most appropriate purposes for their learning (Blum, Lipsett, & Yocom, 2002). Learning and practicing self-determination is of benefit to all students and not just those with disabilities.


 * A Model for Integrating Self-Determination and Academic Content**

Konrad, Walker, Fowler, Test, and Wood (2008) created a basic model for integrating self-determination and academic content. This model was designed for use in a self-contained classroom, though the authors encourage sharing these ideas with general education teachers as well, should the students spend part of the day in the general education classroom.

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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">This model can be applied to individual or groups of students. The three steps of the model are as follows:

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">__Step 1: Decide What to Teach__
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Identify academic content standards.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Understand individual needs of students (IEPs).
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Identify each student's self-determination needs as determined by teacher observations, parent feedback, and self-determination assessments.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Analyze findings to prioritise academic and self-determination teaching goals.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Select instructional duration - a single lesson or an entire unit.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Write goals for instruction and determine how these will be measured.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">__Step 2: Decide how to Teach__
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Select evidence-based strategies for teaching content.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Select evidence-based strategies for teaching self-determination (see table below).
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Determine how to assess effectiveness.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Implement strategies.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">__Step 3: Evaluate and Adjust__
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Implement assessments identified in Step 2.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Continuously evaluate goal-attainment.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Adjust instruction accordingly.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Plan intervention for students who have not met goals.

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=<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**Example of Self-Determination Instruction in General Education: Literature Circles** =

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Literature circles are a form of literary instruction. They are small, temporary discussion groups in which students read and then report to each other about what they have read. All students in the group read the same text. In a literature circle, students must determine for themselves what is important in what they are reading and why. This technique has been used in an inclusive middle school classroom made up of students with a range of reading abilities (Blum, Lipsett, & Yocom, 2002). Literature circles provide students with opportunity to practice self-determination and reading skills simultaneously, and indeed, literature circles and self-determination curricula have many common elements (Blum, Lipsett, & Yocom, 2002). At their core, literature circles are about making decisions; students, not teachers, decide what is of value in the reading and proceed accordingly. Both literature circles and self-determination curricula promote the development of interpersonal relationships through discussion, self-perception, problem solving, and decision-making (Blum, Lipsett, & Yocom).

__Literature Circle Procedures for Teachers (Blum, Lipsett, & Yocom, 2002):__
 * Model appropriate practice.
 * Break students into small groups (2 – 6 students). Each student in the group will read the same text. Eventually students may self-select groups based on text of interest.
 * Assign students specific roles within the group (e.g. discussion leader, vocabulary enricher, illustrator, connector). Idea sheets help students to perform their roles.
 * Students fill out task organizers during their discussion (see below).
 * Facilitate discussion.

<span style="display: block; font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Example of a task organizer that can be used to help students understand and perform their roles during a literature circle (Blum, Lipsett, Yocom, 2002).

= <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">**Example of Self-Determination Instruction in General Education: Children's Literature** =

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;"> Konrad, Helf, and Itoi (2007) have identified multiple ways teachers can infuse reading lessons with self-determination instruction. The authors focus on self-contained special education classrooms and suggest carefully selecting books that feature characters with disabilities (see table below). They provide practical strategies teachers can use to promote both self-determination and literacy skills through the use of children's and adolescent literature. The strategies promote written expression, reading comprehension, and a range of self-determination skills. Some of their strategies with the associated self-determination component are:

__ Self-awareness __
 * Students can compare and contrast their own disabilities with the disability of a character in a book.
 * Students can compare and contrast their feelings about receiving services with those of characters in the book.
 * Teachers should discuss any unrealistic or inaccurate characterizations in the text.

__ Problem-solving and decision-making __
 * While reading, the teacher can pause to discuss the conflict a character is facing and brainstorm solutions using a problem-solving model.
 * Students can compare the actual resolution with suggestions made by the class.
 * Teachers should help students to generalize the same problem-solving approach to their own lives.

__ Goal-setting and self-management __
 * Teachers can ask students to recommend appropriate goals for characters based on what they know about the characters' strengths, needs, and interests.
 * While reading, the teacher can highlight a character's good and poor use of self-management technique.
 * Students can evaluate tbe characters' self-management skills.
 * Students can recommend self-management strategies for a character given a situation described in the book.

__ Self-advocacy __
 * Students can write letters on the behalf of a character, advocating for his or her needs.
 * Students can role-play scenes from the story that require self-advocacy.

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= <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Conclusion =

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">It is important for lifelong success and quality of life that students with disabilities leave high school possessing the mindset and skills associated with self-determination. Too often, self-determination instruction is left to the last minute, providing students with little time in their remaining years of secondary school to master these competencies. The obvious way to fix this problem is to begin self-determination instruction at an earlier age and research has found that even elementary students can begin to learn the component skills.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">A problem, however, is that classroom teachers are concerned about giving up time for content instruction to self-determination instruction. One solution is to infuse content area instruction with self-determination instruction and practice. Although researchers are only beginning to consider this marriage of instruction and bringing this instruction to the middle school level, several useful models and examples exist to guide teachers in their practice. Konrad, Walker, Fowler, Test, and Wood (2008) have created a simple, general model that can be applied in a range of content areas and class sizes. Teachers can adapt this model to fit their needs. The two reading curriculum examples presented here will hopefully act as guides and inspiration.

=<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**References** =

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Blum, H., Lipsett, L. R., & Yocom, D. (2002). Literature circles: A tool for self-determination in one middle school inclusive classroom. //Remedial And Special Education, 23//(2), 99-108. doi:10.1177/074193250202300206

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Calkins, C., Wehmeyer, M., Bacon, A., Heller, T., & Walker, H. (n.d.). A national gateway to self-determination. Retrieved from http://www.aucd.org/ngsd/template/index.cfm

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Field, S., Martin, J., Miller, R., Ward, M., & Wehmeyer, M. (1998). //A Practical Guide for Teaching Self-Determination.// Reston, VA: Council for Exceptional Children.

<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Glago, K., Mastropieiri, M. A., & Scruggs, T. E. (2009).Improving problem solving of elementary students with mild disabilities. //Remedial and Special Education,// //30//(6), 372- 380. doi: 10.1177/0741932508324394

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 2004. 20 U. S. C. § 1400 //et seq.// (2004).

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Konrad, M., Helf, S., & Itoi, M. (2007). More Bang for the Book: Using Children's Literature to Promote Self-Determination and Literacy Skills. // TEACHING Exceptional Children //, // 40 //(1), 64-71.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Konrad, M., Walker, A. R., Fowler, C. H., Test, D. W., & Wood, W. M. (2008). A Model for Aligning Self-Determination and General Curriculum Standards. // TEACHING Exceptional Children //, // 40 //(3), 53-64.

<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Lachapelle, Y., Wehmeyer, M. L., Haelewyck, M.-C., Courbois, Y. Keith, K. D., Schalock, R., Verdugo, M. A., & Walsh, P. N. (2005). The relationship between quality of life and self- determination: an international study. //Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 49//(10), 740 - 744.

<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Madaus, J. W., Gerber, P. J. and Price, L. A. (2008). Adults with learning disabilities in the workforce: Lessons for secondary transition programs. //Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 23//, 148–153. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-5826.2008.00272.x

<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Mazzotti, V. L., Wood, C. L., Test, D. W., & Fowler, C. H. (2012). Effects of computer-assisted instruction on students' knowledge of the Self-Determined Learning Model of Instruction and disruptive behavior. //Journal of Special Education, 45//(4). doi:10.1177/0022466910362261

<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Palmer, S. B., & Wehmeyer, M. L. (2003). Promoting self-determination in early elementary school: teaching self-regulated problem-solving and goal-setting skills. //Remedial And Special Education, 24//(2), 115 - 126. doi:10.1177/07419325030240020601

<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Stang, K. K., Carter, E. W., Lane, K. L., & Pierson, M. R. (2009). Perspectives of general and special educators on fostering self-determination in elementary and middle schools. //The Journal of Special Education Volume, 43(//2), 94-106

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Virginia Department of Education Self-Determination Project. (2012). I'm determined. Retrieved from http://www.imdetermined.org/

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Wehmeyer, M. L., Sands, D. J., Doll, B., & Palmer, S. (1997). The development of self-determination and implications for educational interventions with students with disabilities. //International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 44.// 305 -328.

<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Wehmeyer, M. & Schwartz, M. (1997). Self-determination and positive adult outcomes: a follow-up study of youth with mental retardation or learning disabilities. //Exceptional Children, 63//(2), 245-255.