SELF-DETERMINATION+AND+THE+ELEMENTARY+CHILD

Kara Pac EPSY 5140 April 27, 2012 Self-determination is helping students gain confidence in their abilities and to understand their own personal attributes and the contributions to society that they obtain. Students who are self-determined individuals are those who take pride in their accomplishments, are assertive when they need to be and know whene time to be asserive is necessary, have realized and acquired their self-actualization, and can act as their own self advocates. Self Determination is an essential necessary element, especially for those students with disabilities. Several definitions of self-determination have been written in the special education and disability literature (Field & Hoffman, 1994; Martin & Marshall, 1995; Ward, 1988; Wehmeyer, 1996). Their definitions vary in perspective; however, their definitions tend to be consistent and mplement eachother. Field, Martin, Miller, Ward, and Wehmeyer (1998) summarized the definitions by stating, //Self-determination is a combination of skills, knowledge and beliefs that enable a person to engage in goal-directed, self-regulated, autonomous behavior. An understanding of one's strengths and limitations together with a belief in oneself as capable and effective are essential to self-determination. When acting on the basis of these skills and attitudes, individuals have greater ability to take control of their lives and assume the role of successful adults in our society. (p. 2) //
 * __SELF-DETERMINATION AND THE ELEMENTARY CHILD __**
 * __By: Kara Pac __**
 * __I: Introduction to Self-Determination: __**
 * What Is Self-Determination? **

Martin and Marshall (1995) state that self-determined people are those who know how to choose—they know what they want and how to get it. From an awareness of one’s personal needs, self-determined individuals choose goals, and then attempt to pursue them. This involves asserting their individual's presence and making it known, making his or her needs known, evaluating and analyzing their progress toward meeting and setting goals, adjusting performance as needed, and generating unique approaches to solve problems.
 * What Makes a Person Self-Determined? **


 * II.__Historical Perspective on Students with Disabilities and Self Determination:__ **

In early times, even as early as the 1950's; children born with disabilities were hidden and sometimes even killed. Feelings of shame, guilt, and even extreme sadness were often associated with giving birth to a child with a disability. Often the disability was blamed on sins of family members. Eventually as people with disabilities became more accepted,and society began to view the disability as a personal tragedy and thus; the individual and family must cope. Even successful individuals such as Franklin D. Roosevelt tried to hide their disabilities. Decades ago, children with disabilities rarely encountered successful adults with disabilities. With this said, Self Determination is essential, especially for students with disabilities.(Lifetine offers a movie that displays such called //The Memory Keepers Daughter; based from the book by Kimbery Edwards//)

Self-Determination Theory (SDT) is a theory of motivation. It is concerned with supporting our natural or intrinsic tendencies to behave in effective and healthy ways. SDT has been researched and practiced by a network of researchers around the world.

The theory was initially developed by Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan at the University of Rochester, and has been elaborated and refined by scholars from many countries. Deci and Ryan are professors in the Department of Clinical and Social Sciences in Psychology at the University of Rochester, where they direct a pre- and post-doctoral training program focused on SDT. (Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. I. (2000))


 * III: __Overall Perspective of Self-Determination Instruction:__ **


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Importance of Instruction in Self Determination: **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">The Council for Exceptional Children (CEC), along with many other professional organizations, journal articles, parent groups, embraces instruction in self-determination as a way to improve academic and career outcomes for youth with disabilities with lifelong positive outcomes. Self-determination is also strongly promoted in legislative mandates. For example, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act require that students with disabilities actively participate in their transition planning and that their preferences and interests be considered. It affirms the right of people with disabilities to self-determination.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Growing amounts of evidence suggests that enhanced self-determination skills enable students with disabilities to perform more effectively in academic studies and thus support the goals of No Child Left Behind legislation and standards-based school reform. In addition, many state standards for students include elements of self-determined behavior such as goal setting, problem solving, and decision making. Such can be modified and implemented to directly teach Self Determination skills. (Wood, W. M., Karvonen, M., Test, D. W., Browder, D., & Algozzine, B. (2004))


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">IV: __Perspctive of Self-Determination at the Elementary Level__ **


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Importance of Self-Determination Instruction at the Elementary Level: **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Within the field and profession of special education, the importance of promoting and enhancing the self-determination of children and youth with disabilities has received increased positive attention over the past 15 years, especially at the focus of beginning the instruction of such skills prior to adolescence; such as; as early as pre-school. Self Determination has been identified as "the ultimate goal of education" (Halloran, 1993, p. 214), as a critical component of enabling students to experience a successful transition to adulthood (Field, Martin, Miller, Ward, & Wehmeyer, 1998), and as a core dimension of quality of life. Self-determination emerges across the lifespan as children and adolescents learn and practice skills and attitudes that enable them to act as causal agents in their lives (Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2000). These skills and attitudes are called the component elements of self-determination (Wehmeyer, 1999). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">To adequately prepare students with disabilities with the capacities for self-determination, instruction should begin as early as pre-school age or early in the elementary grades and be focused, sequenced, and sustained using a prescriptive systematic instructional approach. Waiting until adolescence such as middle school aged students, simply means waiting too long. Because significant numbers of students with disabilities fail to complete school or begin to become disengaged at an early age, it is suggested that an early emphasis on teaching self-determination skills may constitute an important dropout prevention strategy by providing an avenue to promote school completion. (Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2000). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Such areas that students need instruction in self-determination include the need for instruction in; **Choice-making skills; Decision-making skills; Problem-solving skills; Goal setting; and basic attainment skills.** Such skills can be acquired and explicitly taught through hands-on lesson in self-observation, self-evaluation, and self-reinforcement skills. Self-instruction skills and self-advocacy and leadership skills foster and encourage independence, and risk-taking. Students; especially students with disabilities need such systematic instruction and frequent opportunities to practice such. Furthermore, students with disabilities can acquire the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that contribute to enhanced self-determination. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Early childhood is a critical time for the development of such cognitive, language, social, and emotional skills. Given the developmental nature of self-determination (Brown & Cohen, 1996; Sands & Doll, 1996; Wehmeyer, 1997), early childhood (pre-school age) is also a critical time for the development of such skills and attitudes that lead to later self-determination (Erwin & Brown, 2003). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Overall, in order for students to become empowered, they need to be explicitly taught the skills necessary for self-determination. The idea of self-determination and student empowerment is not new and has had significant support inin special education literature as critical components to the IEP and transition planning process (Martin, Marshall, & Sale, 2004; Zionts et al., 2004). Research supports such perspectives above with strong evidence that students with disabilities who possess self-determination skills prior to leaving high school have more successful post school outcomes than their peers who do not possess these same skills (Martin, Mithaug et al., 2003; Mason, Field, & Sawilowsky, 2004; Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Ultimately, self-determination and overall student empowerment improve the quality of students' adult lives. By not providing avenues for students with disabilities to become empowered individuals, educators may be inadvertently inhibiting their students with disabilities from leading the successful and fulfilling lives of which they are capable.


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">V: __Education Perspective:__ **


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Educators and Self Determination: **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Although many teachers agree that it is important to teach self-determination, a relatively low percentage of special education teachers actually implement a self-determination program or include goals and objectives related to self-determination on student IEPs (Argan, Snow, & Swaner, 1999; Grigal, Neubert, Moon. & Graham. 2003; Test, Mason et al.. 2004; Wehmeyer, Argan, & Hughes, 2000). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Even among teachers who do actively work toward student participation in IEP meetings, (With my experience and with my research, it is not ahigh percentage); many are not satisfied with the level of student involvement they achieve. In general, teachers have reported feeling unprepared to teach the skills necessary for addressing self-determination with their students (Mason, 2004). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Despite the needs to broaden and strenghen self-determination instruction across the grade span, the level at which educators working with younger students value and promote component elements of self-determination in their classrooms remains uncertain. Studies suggest that special educators working with younger students may attach less importance to promoting self-determination. Mason, 2004; reported that relative to middle and high school teachers, elementary teachers placed less value on student involvement in individualized educational program meetings, reported feeling less prepared to teach self-determination skills, and stated that they were less likely to provide formal or informal self-determination instruction. With that said the paragraphs following give a glimpse to how teachers and special education teachers can promote and instruct in the areas of self-determination.


 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Ways to teach Self Determination to Elementary Students: __**

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Teachers and Special Education teachers can basically take any classroom situation and make it a lesson that teaches and encourages self-determination skills. From constant modeling and role playing of building self-esteem to basic discussions, teachers hold a valuable key to molding our self-determined children. Teachers can; enhance the learning of critical thinking, problem solving; increase their self-awareness, self-management, self-control, self-reliance, and self-esteem. They can also emphasize the development, maintenance, and generalization of knowledge and skills across environments and settings. Teachers can also; foster and model positive social interactions, and active engagement in life events. Teachers can encourage the independence, self-motivation, self-direction, personal empowerment, and self-advocacy. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">According to Rockman (2001), telling stories to elementary and middle school students and teaching them to express themselves through story can yield many wonderful results such as increased attention spans, imaginative writing, good group dynamics and enhanced self-esteem, which in turn indirectly teach necessary self-determination skills. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Rockman refers to Kieran Egan’s book //Teaching through Storytelling//, which urges teachers to incorporate narrative stories across the curriculum as a way to create interest in a variety of subjects and to increase students’ abilities to retain information. According to Egan, she proposes that the lessons children recall later in life most often follow the story form model.(Narrative) Rockman states that for many people, folktales are the easiest stories to learn. Coming from an oral tradition, they have a fast-moving plot and can be interpreted on so many levels that each listener takes from the story what is most important to him or her.(Note: A lot of the elementary language arts curriculum frameworks incorporate a great deal of pour quoi tales, folktales and fables. )(Such genres are part of the Common Core Learning Standards) Folktales have lasted through time due to their universality. According to Johnson and Giorgis (2000), through enduring tales, generations of children have learned life lessons – lessons teaching the responsibility and boundaries of their culture. The fable,//The Tourtoise and the Hare// is a good example. The fable teaches the importance of taking your time and doing your best. When one does that, they are the true winner. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Another approach to promoting self-determination in the elementary years is through students taking part in their IEP. Student participation as early as the elementary level can be very beneficial. According to Cochran-Roberts, at this level; their meetings are generally short, thus making their ability to attain their attention is thus far greater. The student becomes eager to track his/her progress in specific IEP objectives, such as reading speed and accuracy, sentence writing and paragraph skills, math fact fluency, self-control behaviors and self-advocacy. This can be done by having the student track his/her own progress using a student friendly bar graph, line graph, followed with incentives when a goal is met. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">According to Cochran-Roberts, research shows that student selected goals are more powerful than teacher selected goals. In order to make a student led IEP effective at the elementary level it is essential to get on the same page as parents. Everyone as a team including the student need to identify the student's strengths, weaknesses and future needs and desires. As well as what works and what doesn’t work. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Ways to get students to become involved in their IEP could include according to Cochran-Roberts are having them complete a self-appraisal of how things are going using a rating scale. Asses their ownership level through a questionnaire. Students are generally honest about things when asked to evaluate. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">In the following link: []; Cochran-Roberts offers types of questionnaires for students to be successful in their IEP meetings. This site he generated also includes valuable posters and cards for students to utilize to strengthen their self-determination.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">VI: **__Parents Perspective of Self Determination:__**


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Parents and Self-Determination: **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Families as well as educators, including the elementary level; play a huge critical role in the development of self-determination in children, especially those with disabilities (Abery & Zajac, 1996). Children spend the majority of their time, particularly in early childhood, in the home or at school like setting; such as pre-school or at an elementary school. Both the home and school environment mediate and mold the opportunities children have to engage in behaviors that support the development of self-determination (Brotherson, Cook, Cunconan-Lahr, & Wehmeyer, 1995). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Furthermore, opportunities to experience self-determination that occur outside the home (i.e., education interventions) can be greatly influenced by the degree of family involvement, parent modeling, and support for such initiatives (Turnbull, Turnbull, Erwin, & Soodak, 2006). Erwin and Brown (2003) developed a series of self-monitoring questions for use by families and early childhood professionals to assess young children's opportunities for self-determination within their natural learning environments, creating a process that can be used to frequently evaluate young children's opportunities for self-determination. Such examples include supporting children to articulate their needs and desires at home on a daily basis; such as their desires for lunch, toys to play with, activities, etc. Parents can also structure predictable routines that children learn to anticipate such as story times before bed. Encourage children to set and work toward simple goals such as completing a puzzle. Parents are also encouraged to support children in age appropriate risk taking; however, not to become more overly protecting than parents of their peers that are not disabled. Parents are also encouraged to encourage their children to try new things and work through their challenges through the encouragement of teaching coping skills. Also, talking through the process of making decisions and achieving desirable outcomes. It is also important for parents to discuss important strengths and special talents their child has. It is important for parents to establish social environments that foster and reinforce appropriate behavior. Parents are also models of optimism and positive examples of strong self-esteem. Parents can also set up opportunities for students to engage in self-evaluation of their strengths and weakness. Overall, parents have a vital role in establishing and maintaining their child’s self-determination skills. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Parents are confronted with a fundamental but often difficult task: <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">while also nurturing children’s drive to express them and to pursue their unique interests and capacities.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">As students, especially students with disabilities make the transition from high school to college; students with learning disabilities may be confronted with more challenges than their peers without disabilities. In virtually every way, success in college requires more diligence, __self-control__, self-evaluation, decision making, time management and goal setting. Overall, college requires more self-determination than is expected of students in secondary schools. For example, the difference in class time versus study time requires the student to select the amount of time needed to read texts, review notes, complete assignments, and study, as well as to schedule that time and be __disciplined__ enough to independently meet such obligations. Time management is an essential skill that is required in life, especially in college. This must be done without the benefit of supervision from parents or special education teachers despite the distractions offered by college life. While high school is structured; college environments require students to manage their own time and organize their days and nights as well as make appropriate decisions. The decision making skill is huge here. This dramatic difference in personal freedom combined with the increased demand for critical thinking and independent learning, as well as independent living for many can be overwhelming for students who are not self-determined (Brinckerhoff, McGuire, & Shaw, 2002; Mellard, 1996). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">In a recent study, Sarver (2000) investigated the relationship between self-determination and academic success for students with learning disabilities enrolled at a major university. Participants in the study consisted of 88 students with learning disabilities who were registered with the Office for Students with Disabilities and had completed at least 30 hours of college credit but had not received a bachelor's degree.(These students had similar traits to the students living at the Transition Academy in Niantic, CT.) All of the participants were administered the Self-Determination Student Scale (SDSS; Hoffman, Field, & Sawilowsky, 1996), which yielded a qualitative and quantitative measure of the extent to which they were self-determined. The SDSS is a 92-item self-report instrument that measures both affective and cognitive aspects of a student's self-determination. The items contain a brief question with basic life like scenarios to which the student marks "That's me" or "That's not me." Results from the administration of the SDSS were compared with participants' grade point averages (GPA’s) at the time of the study, which were interpreted as a measure of their academic success. Results were also compared with the number of disability accommodations granted by the college. Total scores on the SDSS were found to be positively and significantly correlated with students' GPAs. There was no significant correlation between their scores on the SDSS and the number of disability accommodations approved by the school. Thus, self-determination skills and their importance are essential to one’s success in life, especially after the structure of high school is eliminated. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Self-determination should be a central organizing concept in postsecondary programs for all students with disabilities, including those with learning disabilities. The importance of self-determination is supported by numerous studies, including one by Sarver (2000), who found a significant relationship between the grade point averages of students with learning disabilities and their levels of self-determination. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Interviews with students about postsecondary environments demonstrate that specific environmental factors and personality markers are important to postsecondary success. Some of the characteristics include self-determined role models, self-determination skill instruction, opportunities for choice, positive communication patterns and relationships, and availability of supports. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">The transition from high school to postsecondary education is particularly challenging for students with disabilities. Too often secondary programs have not implemented "best practices" such as involving the student in developing the Individualized Education Program (IEP), providing instruction in learning strategies, and encouraging the student to take a college preparatory program of coursework (Williams & O'Leary, 2001). Secondly, parents and students have often viewed content tutoring, course waivers, and as many accommodations as possible as effective elements in college preparation. Such short-term solutions have resulted in high percentages of students with learning disabilities dropping out of high school, not seeking admission to postsecondary education, and not being prepared to succeed in postsecondary education (Horn, Berktold, & Bobbit, 1999; U.S. Department of Education, 2000). Issues related to self-determination are clearly critical to developing solutions for these problems. Furthermore, more reason to implement instruction in the area of self-determination as early as the elementary years. Students on't have such services at their fingertips in the real working world.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">The Importance of Self Determination Skills at the Post-Secondary Level: __**


 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">IDEA and Self-Determination: __**

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">The very prescriptive and systematic Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) provide important supports for children with disabilities, but in many ways it works against successful outcomes in postsecondary education. Although recent IDEA amendments have encouraged student involvement in the IEP and transition planning processes, most responsibility and authority is in the hands of the school and the parents. Parents have been important and productive advocates for their children, but students have typically not been prepared for self-advocacy or self-determination. The parent's role as responsible decision maker ends when the child reaches the age of majority. Furthermore, the IDEA does not apply to students who have graduated from high school. For colleges, Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 have controlling legal authority. Suchare civil rights acts that put the responsibility for identification, documentation, and requesting accommodations solely in the hands of the student. The student must self-advocate because their parents have no standing and the college is only required to react to the student's specification of need. The tremendous differences between high school and college further identify transition problems for students with ldisabilities. Students need to begin to practice their self-advocacy and self-determination skills early on and thus the instruction of self-determination from early childhood on is essential.


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">VI: __What Research Suggests:__ **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Research has demonstrated that individuals who are self-determined are more successful in achievement of their stated identified goals. Examples of strategies that promote self-determination and success for students with disabilities in postsecondary settings include offering opportunities for students to set personal goals and make choices and providing self-determination skill instruction and support for students and faculty. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">To date, the bulk of research and development in self-determination has been conducted in secondary (i.e., high school and middle school) settings. More research is needed in the area of implemented the teaching of self-determination and self-advocacy in the elementary years.


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">VII:__Further Research:__ **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Unfortunately, students’ Individualized Educational Program goals still fall short of reflecting the emerging curricular emphasis on self-determination (Powers et al., 2005; Wehmeyer et al., 2000).

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Further research is needed to identify best practices for implementing a self-determination focus in postsecondary educational settings. Research is needed to address areas of human development and how the self-determination of students with learning disabilities is influenced by the impact of their disabilities and the stressors of postsecondary education. We need to study the possible differences in self-determination and postsecondary experiences of students with learning disabilities based on their gender and ethnicity. There is also a need to learn more about how self-determination of postsecondary students is affected by age (e.g., traditional college age or older) and by the point in time at which students are identified as having learning disabilities.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">We need to answer questions such as the following: Which instructional approaches (e.g., universal design for instruction, learning strategies), supports (e.g., summer transition program, coaching), and administrative styles (e.g., collaborative decision making) foster self-determination and academic achievement? Do self-determined college students become self-determined adults and succeed in the working world? Will the efforts to involve high school students in transition planning result in more successful college experiences for students with learning disabilities, especially at the elementary level?

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Self-determination is an emerging concept in postsecondary services that holds tremendous promise for increased success for students with learning disabilities in postsecondary settings. With further research and broader implementation of self-determination practices, this promising concept could become a key feature that promotes success for students with disabilities in postsecondary educational settings with the beginning of such; beginning as early as the pre-school and elementary age.


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">VIII: __Additional Resources:__ **


 * //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Websites: //**


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">A valuable website about how one school district successfully utilizes student led IEP’s as well as valuable resources to ensure such. **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">[|**http://www.pluk.org/ITVdocs/ITV_May13_03.pdf**]


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">The Learning Community for Person-Centered Practices: **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">[|**http://www.learningcommunity.us/home.html**]


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Self-Determined Career Development Model- Training Modules: **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> [|**http://www.rcep7.org/MoreThanAJob/index.html**]


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">IDEAL: Self-Advocacy and Self-Determination **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">[|**http://www.idealindiana.com/ideal/modules/28/**]


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Self-Directed Learning **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">[|**http://www.nwrel.org/planning/reports/self-direct/index.php**]


 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Student LED IEP Links: __**


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">A Student's Guide to the IEP (PDF) **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">[|**http://www.pluk.org/ITVdocs/ITV_May13_03.pdf**]


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Direct Observation of Teacher Directed IEP Meetings: Establishing the Need for Student IEP Meeting Instruction. James Martin, Jamie L. Van Dycke, J.Emmett Gardner, W. Robert Christensen, Lee L. Woods, David L. Lovett **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">[|**http://www.nichcy.org/pubs/stuguide/st1book.htm**]


 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">IEP Portfolio Template __**


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Becky Wilson Hawbaker **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">[|**http://www.hawbaker.pls.iowapages.org/id2.html**]


 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Promoting Student Voice in Schools __**

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">[|**http://www.soundout.org/series.html**]


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Who Makes the Choices? I Do Student-Led IEPs **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">[|**http://www.studentledieps.org/**]


 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Classroom Resources: __**


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">•Edutopia: The George Lucas Educational Foundation **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">[|**http://www.edutopia.org/aboutus**]


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Sparktop.org **


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">SparkTop.org is a new Schwab Learning resource designed for teachers of students ages 8-12 with learning difficulties, offers tools and ideas for educators to help these children build their self-esteem. The site offers activities on developing leadership and problem-solving skills in a supportive environment, links on topics such as test-taking strategies and adapting a classroom to fit the needs of students with learning disabilities, and a newsletter **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">[|**http://www.sparktop.org/intro.html**]


 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Person Centered Planning: __**


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Inclusion Press: **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">[|**http://www.inclusion.com/**]


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">The Person-Centered Planning Education Site **


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Cornell University **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">[|**http://www.ilr.cornell.edu/edi/pcp/**]


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Imagine **


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">David Pitonyak, Consultant **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">[|**http://www.dimagine.com/index.html**]


 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Post-Secondary Resources: __**


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Students with Disabilities Preparing for Post-Secondary Education **


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Office of Civil Rights **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">[|**http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/transition.html**]


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Topical Report (PDF) **


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">A National Study on Graduation Requirements and Diploma Options for Youth with Disabilities, National Center on Secondary Education and Transition, The College of Education and Human Development, University of Minnesota **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">[|**http://www.ncset.org/publications/related/NCSETgradreport.pdf**]


 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Professional Organizations: __**


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Center for Self-Determination and Transition, College of Education, Wayne State University **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">[|**http://www.coe.wayne.edu:16080/selfdetermination/**]


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Council for Exceptional Children **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">[|**http://www.cec.sped.org//AM/Template.cfm?Section=Home**]


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Pacer Center **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">[|**http://www.pacer.org/index.asp**]


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">TASH: Equity Opportunities and Inclusion for People with Disabilities **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">[|**http://tash.org/index.html**]


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">The Beach Center on Disability at the University of Kansas **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">[|**http://www.beachcenter.org/Default.aspx?JScript=1**]


 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">References: __**

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Abery, B., & Zajac, R. (1996). Self-determination as a goal of early childhood and elementary education. In D. J. Sands & M. L. Wehmeyer (Eds.), Self-determination across the life span: Independence and choice for people with disabilities (pp. 169-196). Baltimore: Brookes. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Argan, M., Snow, K, & Swaner. J, (1999). Teacher perceptions of self-determination: Benefits, characteristics, and strategies. Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 34,293-301. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Brotherson, M. J., Cook, C. C, Cunconan-Lahr, R., & Wehmeyer, M. L. (1995). Policy supporting self-determination in the environments of children with disabilities. Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 30(1)5 3-14. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Brinckerhoff, L. C., McGuire, J. M., & Shaw, S. F. (2002). Postsecondary education and transition for students with learning disabilities. Austin, TX: PRO-ED. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Brown, E, & Cohen, S. (1996). Self-determination and young children. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 210'), 22-30. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Chadsey-Rusch, J., Rusch, F., & O'Reilly, M. F. (1991). Transition from school to integrated communities. Remedial and Special Education, 12, 23-33. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Deci. E. L., Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G.. & Ryan, R, M, (1991). Motivation and education; the self-determination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26(3&4), 325-346. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Erwin, E. J., & Brown, E (2003). From theory to practice: A contextual framework for understanding self-determination in early childhood environments. Infants & Young Children, 75(1), 77-87. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Finn, C. E., Rotherham, A. J., & Hokanson, C. R. (2001). Rethinking special education for a new century. Washington, DC: Thomas B. Fordham Foundation. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Field, S., & Hoffman, A. (1994). Development of a model for self-determination. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 17, 159-169. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Field, S., Hoffman, A., St. Peter, S., & Sawilowsky, S. (1992). Skills and knowledge for self-determination: Interim research report. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Field, S., Hoffman, A., & Sawilowsky, S. (1993). Research in self-determination: Interim research report. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Field, S., & Hoffman, A. (1996). Increasing the ability of educators to support youth self-determination. In L. E. Powers, G. H. S. Singer, & J. Sowers (Eds.), Promoting self-competence in children and youth with disabilities: On the road to autonomy (pp. 171-187). Baltimore: Brookes. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Field, S., Hoffman, A., & Spezia, S. (1998). Self-determination strategies for adolescents in transition. Austin, TX: PRO-ED. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Field, S., Martin, J., Miller, R., Ward, M., & Wehmeyer, M. (1998). A practical guide to teaching self-determination. Reston, VA: Council for Exceptional Children. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Field, S., & Hoffman, A. (2001). Teaching with integrity, reflection and self-determination (Working paper). Detroit, MI: Wayne State University. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Field, S., Hoffman, A., & Fullerton, A. (2001). Self-determination in personnel preparation: Preliminary results of qualitative study (Working paper). Detroit, MI: Wayne State University. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Grigal. M., Neubert, D, A, Moon, M. S, & Graham, S, (2003), Self-determination for students with disabilities: Views of parents and teachers. Exceptional Children, 70. 97-112. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Halloran, W D. (1993). Transition services requirement: Issues, imp locations, challenge. In R. C. Eaves & P. J. McLaughlin (Eds.), Recent advances in special education and rehabilitation (pp. 210-224). Boston: Andover Medical Publishers. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Hoffman, A., Field, S., & Sawilowsky, S. (1996). Self-determination knowledge scale Forms A & B. Austin, TX: PRO-ED. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Horn, L., Berktold, J., & Bobbit, L. (1999). Students with disabilities in postsecondary education: A profile of preparation, participation and outcomes (National Center for Educational Statistics No. 187). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Johnson, Nancy J. and Cindi Giorgis. “Memory, Memoir, Story.” The Reading Teacher. v 54 no 3(2000): 336-343. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Mason. C, Field, S., & Sawilowsky, S. (2004). Implementation of self-determination activities and student participation in IEPs, Exceptional Children, 70, 441-451. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Martin, J. E., & Marshall, L. H. (1995). ChoiceMaker: A comprehensive self-determination transition program. Intervention in School and Clinic, 30, 147-156. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Martin, J. (1997). Self-Determination is for Teachers, Too. Presentation to the Division on Career Development International Conference, Scottsdale, AZ. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Martin, J. E., Mitbaug, D, E, Cox, P., Peterson, L, Y., VanDycke, J, L., & Cash, M, E. (2003), Increasing self-determination: Teaching students to plan, work, evaluate, and adjust. Exceptional Children, 69, 431-447. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Martin, J E., Marshall, L. H., & Sale, P, (2004), A 3-year study of middle, junior and high school IEP meetings. Exceptional Children, 70, 285-297. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Powers, L. (1997). Self-determination is for teachers, too. Presentation to the Division on Career Development International Conference, Scottsdale, AZ. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Reiff, H. B., Gerber, P. J., & Ginsberg, R. (1992). Learning to achieve: Suggestions from adults with learning disabilities. Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability, 10, 11-23. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Reiff, H. B., Gerber, P. J., & Ginsberg, R. (1997). Exceeding expectations: Successful adults with learning disabilities. Austin, TX: PRO-ED. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Rockman, Connie. “Tell me a story.” School Library Journal. v 47 no 8 (2000): 46-49. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Ryan, A. G., & Price, L. R. (1993). Learning disabilities in adult basic education: A survey of current practices. Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability, 10 (3), 31-40. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Ryan, A. G. (1994). Life adjustment of college freshmen with and without learning disabilities. Annals of Dyslexia, 44, 227-249. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. I. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68-78. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Sands, D. J., & Doll, B. (1996). Fostering self-determination is a developmental task. The Journal of Special Education, 30 (1), 58-76. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Sarver, M. D. (2000). A study of the relationship between personal and environmental factors bearing on self-determination and the academic success of university students with learning disabilities. Doctoral dissertation, University of Florida, Gainesville. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Test, D- W, Mason. C, Hughes, C, Konrad. M.. Neale, M., & Wood. W, M, (2004).Student involvement in individualized program meetings. Exceptional Children, 70, 391-412. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Turnbull, A. P, Turnbull, H. R., Erwin, E. J., & Soodak, L. C. (in press). Families, professionals, and exceptionality: Promoting outcomes through partnerships and trust (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice-Hall. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">U.S. Department of Education. (2000). Twenty-second annual report to Congress on the implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Washington, DC: Author. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Ward, M. J. (1988). The many facets of self-determination. Transition Summary, 5, 2-3. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Wehmeyer, M. L. (1993). Perceptual and psychological factors in career decision-making of adolescents with and without cognitive disabilities. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 16 (2), 135-146. // //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Wehmeyer, M. L. (1995). A career education approach: Self-determination for youth with mild cognitive disabilities. Intervention in School and Clinic, 30 (3), 157-163. // //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Wehmeyer, M. L. (1996). Self-determination as an educational outcome: Why is it important to children, youth and adults with disabilities? In D. J. Sands & M. L. // //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Wehmeyer (Eds.), Self-determination across the lifespan: Independence and choice for people with disabilities (pp. 1 14). Baltimore: Brookes. // //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Wehmeyer, M. L., & Schwartz, M. (1997). Self-determination and positive adult outcomes: A follow-up study of youth with mental retardation or learning disabilities. Exceptional Children, 63 (2), 245-255. // //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Wehmeyer, M. L. (1998). Self-determination and individuals with significant disabilities: Examining meanings and misinterpretations. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 23, 5-16. // //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Wehmeyer, M. L. & Schwartz, M. (1998). The relationship between self-determination, quality of life, and life satisfaction for adults with mental retardation. Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 33, 3-12. // //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Wehmeyer, M. L., Agran, M., & Hughes, C. (2000). A national survey of teachers' promotion of self-determination and student-directed learning. Journal of Special Education, 34, 58-68. // //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Williams, J. M., & O'Leary, E. (2001). What we've learned and where we go from here. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 24, 51-71. //

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Wood, W. M., Karvonen, M., Test, D. W., Browder, D., & Algozzine, B. (2004). Promoting Student Self-Determination Skills in IEP Planning. Teaching Exceptional Children, 36(3), 8-16. // //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Zionts. L. T, Hoza. T. E.. & Banks, T I. (2004). Self-advocacy, self-determination, and adolescent brain research: What are the implications for youth with EBD? Beyond Behavior, 13{i). 9-11. //