Adam+Lalor


 * Transition to Higher Education: What to Know Before You Go!** Adam R. Lalor



toc Higher education has become a more common “next step” for students with disabilities following graduation from high school (Newman, Wagner, Cameto, Knokey, & Shaver, 2010). Increased enrollment of students with disabilities is likely due, in part, to the many benefits associated with enrollment. Benefits associated with enrollment in a higher education program include (a) increased earnings, (b) increased likelihood of employment (c) increased community engagement, (d) improved health, and (e) increased self-esteem (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005).

Despite the benefits associated with higher education, the transition can also be associated with increased levels of anxiety and stress (Hiester, Nordstrom, & Swenson, 2009). Furthermore, for some students, high levels of anxiety and stress may lead to failure to persist (also known as dropping out; Parade, Leerkes, & Blamkson, 2010).

Given the benefits and risks associated with enrollment in higher education, students with disabilities and their families should take great care to learn about and understand the transition process. The intent of this site is to help prepare and educate students with disabilities and their families about higher education. In particular, the site will cover:


 * Higher Education Disability Law
 * The History of Disability and Higher Education
 * Types of Higher Education Programs for Students with Disabilities
 * Potential Issues
 * Implications of Students with Disabilities for Higher Education
 * Additional Resources to Support the Transition of Students with Disabilities to Higher Education

**Disability Laws**


As students with disabilities move from high school to colleges and universities they are protected by different laws. During high school, students were protected by the [|Individuals with Disabilities Education Act] (IDEA) and [|Section 504] of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. Upon graduation, however, students with disabilities receive protection from Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the [|Americans with Disabilities Act](ADA). The importance of this difference should be known by all students departing high school (i.e., students who have graduated, students who have aged out, and students who have dropped out). The key difference to note is that the IDEA is an education law and the ADA and the Rehabilitation Act are civil rights laws (Shaw & Madaus, 2008). Essentially, the purpose of the IDEA is to ensure success and educational attainment during childhood and adolescence, whereas the purpose of the ADA and the Rehabilitation Act are to prevent discrimination and to ensure access (but not success) to education. This basic legal difference results in new expectations of students with disabilities upon matriculation to a college or university and a variation in the types of services that students with disabilities can expect.

The following chart summarizes some of the basic differences that students with disabilities and their families can expect between high school and higher education in the areas of student responsibilities and services. Adapted from Think College (2012)
 * ** Questions ** ||  ** High School **  ||  ** Higher Education **  ||
 * ** What are the Applicable Laws? ** || IDEA & Section 504  ||  ADA & Section 504  ||
 * ** Who is Covered by the Law? ** || Infants Through High School Graduates (or Through Age 21)  ||  All Student Meeting Eligibility Criteria for Admission with Documented Disabilities  ||
 * ** Who Has the Responsibility for Identifying and Evaluating Students with Disabilities? ** || School  ||  Individual Student  ||
 * ** What is Offered to a Student with a Disability? ** || Special Education, Accommodations, [|Individualized Education Plans]  ||  [|Reasonable Accommodations]  ||
 * ** Who Serves as the Primary Advocate? ** || Parents  ||  Individual Student  ||
 * ** Who is Responsible for Monitoring Progress, Outcomes, and Achievement? ** || School  ||  Student  ||

**History**
==

==

Gallaudete University
The history of students with disabilities in American higher education formally began in Washington DC in 1864 with the establishment of the National Deaf-Mute College by E. M. Gallaudet (Madaus, 2011). The National Deaf-Mute College, renamed Gallaudet College (1894) and then [|Gallaudet University](1986), was chartered by the Federal Government and given authorization to confer college degrees by President Abraham Lincoln (Gallaudet University, 2012). Gallaudet University has served students who are deaf and hard of hearing since its founding.

Helen Keller
In 1899 a young woman named Hellen Keller completed the entrance exams for admission into Radcliffe College (Library of Congress, n.d.). Keller’s scores qualified her for admission and earned her honors in some subjects. In the fall of 1900 [|she enrolled at Radcliffe College]. In her autobiography, The Story of My Life, Keller reflects on her first day at Radcliffe:

Keller worked hard at her studies while at Radcliffe. With support from her long-time teacher, Anne Sullivan, Keller was able to complete her education and graduated with a BA in 1904 (Library of Congress, n.d.).
 * //It was a day full of interest for me. I had looked forward to it for years. A potent force within me, stronger than the persuasion of my friends, stronger even than the pleadings of my heart, had impelled me to try my strength by the standards of those who see and hear. I knew that there were obstacles in the way; but I was eager to overcome them. I had taken to heart the words of the wise Roman who said, "To be banished from Rome is but to live outside of Rome." Debarred from the great highways of knowledge, I was compelled to make the journey across country by unfrequented roads--that was all; and I knew that in college there were many bypaths where I could touch hands with girls who were thinking, loving and struggling like me. (Keller, 2003)//**

The War Era
War was a contributor to increased participation of individuals with disabilities in higher education. The Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1918 offered limited assistance to World War I veterans with disabilities as they looked to attain a higher education and professional training (Madaus, 2011). Following World War II, however, a far greater number of veterans received educational assistance form the [|Serviceman’s Readjustment Act] of 1944. World War II veterans received funding to enroll in higher education at both the undergraduate and graduate levels. By 1946 over 50% of students attending higher education were veterans.

Veterans with disabilities on college campuses resulted in dramatic changes for higher education. Due to the new population of students [|new services and policies] were developed (Madaus, 2011). Accommodations that impacted academics, student life, and facilities were put into place to make higher education more accessible. Unfortunately, despite increased accessibility, students with disabilities faced discrimination due to their perceived abilities and worth.

Recent History
During the 1970s, more attention and support was provided to students with disabilities. As previously discussed, federal legislation increased access of students with disabilities to higher education. Two pieces of legislation served as turning points for widespread access to education for students with disabilities (Madaus, 2011). First, the Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1973, specifically Section 504, states that:

//**No otherwise qualified handicapped individual in the United States shall, solely by reason of his handicap, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance.**//

Additionally, Section 504 notes that a free and appropriate public education must be provided to students with disabilities.

Second, the [|Education of All Handicapped Children Act of 1975] (P.L. 94-142) provided access to primary and secondary education for all students with disabilities. Components of this Act include mandates regarding free and appropriate education, least restrictive environments, IEPs, and procedures for filing complaints. The Education of All Handicapped Children Act essentially created a new stream of students who may be qualified applicants for higher education (Madaus, 2011).

Another important moment in the history of disability in higher education was the passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). Signed into law in 1990, the ADA was amended in 2008. The initial act continued the process of reducing discrimination directed toward individuals with disabilities and increasing educational access (Madaus, 2011). Unfortunately, several court rulings (i.e., //[|Sutton v. United Airlines, Inc.]// [1999] & //[|Toyota Motor Manufacturing, Kentucky, Inc. v. Williams]//[2002]) served to restrict the initial intent of the ADA. Between 1990 and 2008 much attention was placed on accommodations, documentation, and disability-related terminology within higher education (Madaus, 2011). The 2008 amendments to the ADA rectified the issues with the ADA and restored the initial intent of the law.

**Types of Higher Education Programs**
Upon leaving high school, students with disabilities have a variety of options. While some students will pursue competitive, supported, or sheltered employment, other students with disabilities will pursue higher education.

Higher education is a broad term that encompasses a wide variety of institution types and outcome types. Institutions of higher education can be categorized by a number of characteristics (e.g., degrees offered, size, specialization, profit status, etc.). Furthermore, formal systems of classification and ranking exist based on combinations of criteria (e.g., [|Carnegie Classification] &[| U.S. News and World Report’s] rankings of 'Best Colleges”).

As students consider higher education, they should understand a few basic terms regarding institution types:


 * Four-Year College/University:** A higher education institution that offers a bachelor’s degree that can be completed in four years. Some four-year colleges offer associate’s, master’s, doctoral, and/or professional degrees in addition to bachelor’s degrees. Four-year colleges generally, but not always, offer a wide breadth of courses in different disciplines.


 * Two-Year College:** A higher education institution that offers an associate’s degrees and/or vocational training that can be completed in two years. Following graduation from a two-year college, some students pursue a four-year degree while other move directly to employment settings.


 * Research University:** A higher education institution that places great emphasis on conducting research. Generally consisting of a variety of schools and departments, the institution offers a wide variety of degree including the doctorate.


 * Liberal Arts College/University:** A higher education institution that provides students with a liberal education consisting of instruction in the arts, humanities, sciences, and social sciences. Students typically graduate from liberal arts colleges with bachelor’s degrees.


 * For-Profit College/University:** A higher education institution that is run by a parent company. In addition to educating students, for-profit colleges have a goal of making money for shareholders, investors, and owners. For-profit colleges can offer a variety of degrees and certifications.


 * Non-Profit College/University:** A higher education institution that has a goal of educating students. Profits made by the institution are reinvested in the institution. Non-profit institutions offer a wide variety of degrees.


 * Public College/University:** A higher education institution that receives a large percentage of funding from taxpayers. Public institutions are intended to serve the general public and tend to have higher enrollments.


 * Private College/University:** A higher education institution that receives a large percentage of funding from endowments and individual donations. Private institutions tend to be more expensive institutions as many need tuition revenue to operate.


 * Distance College/University:** A higher education institution that provides education that is not campus based. The most common type of distance college is the online college. Distance colleges offer a wide variety of degrees, certificates, and training.


 * Specialized College/University:** A higher education institution that focuses on serving a specific population of students. Colleges of this type include [|women’s colleges], [|historically black colleges and universities] (HBCUs), and colleges for students with specific disabilities (e.g., [|Landmark College], [|Beacon College], Gallaudet University).

In addition to the institution types above, students with intellectual disabilities (ID) should also be aware of the two types of programs: traditional and alternative. Depending on the goals, needs, preparation level, and abilities of the student, one of these program types might be more appropriate than the other.

One option available to students with ID is a traditional higher education program that results in the attainment of a specific degree (i.e., associates or bachelors degree). Students who enroll in traditional programs must meet the admission criteria outlined by the higher education institution. Students will have full access to the offerings of the institution. As any student with a disability, a student with an ID must self-disclose their disability to a disability services office (or coordinator) in order to receive accommodations.
 * Traditional Programs**

Disability support in higher education services vary by institution. A continuum of support services exists in higher education that students with disabilities should become familiar with if they choose to attend a traditional higher education program. The continuum, first devised by McGuire and Shaw in 1989 and then revised by Madaus in 2005, highlights key differences between four models of support services in higher education: decentralized services, loosely-coordinated services, centrally coordinated services, and data-based or comprehensive support programs.

**Continuum of Support Services** From “Resource Guide of Support Services for Students With Learning Disabilities in Connecticut Colleges and Universities,” by J. M. McGuire and S. F. Shaw, 1989, Storrs, CT: A. J. Pappanikou Center on Special Education and Rehabilitation: A University Affiliated Program, University of Connecticut. Copyright 1996 (revised) by Joan McQuire and Stan Shaw. Revised by Joseph Madaus (2005). Reformatted for present work.

A second option for students with ID is an alternative program. An alternative program is for a student who wishes to receive postsecondary education, but who may not be qualified for admission to a traditional higher education program ([|Hart, Grigal, Sax, Martinez, & Will, 2006]). These programs offer a variety of educational opportunities for students with disabilities including career-related skill development, academic skill development, social skill development, and personal development.
 * Alternative Programs**

Typically offered by secondary schools working in conjunction with local higher education faculty and administrators, three models of alternative programs exist: Adapted from Hart, Grigal, Sax, Martinez, & Will (2006)
 * **Characteristic** || **Mixed/Hybrid Model**  ||  **Substantially Separate Model**  ||  **Inclusive Individual Support Model**  ||
 * Courses Taken with Students with ID ||  Yes  ||  Yes  ||  No  ||
 * Courses Taken with Students without Disabilities ||  Yes  ||  No  ||  No  ||
 * Extracurricular Activities Available to Program Participants ||  Yes  ||  Possibly  ||  No  ||
 * Employment Opportunity Included as Program Component ||  Yes  ||  Possibly  ||  Possibly  ||

**Potential Issues**
While not presently an issue for higher education institutions, recent court rulings on accommodations have the potential to have significant implications for institutions of higher education. Thoroughness and completeness of disability documentation will likely become even more important if a student is requesting an accommodation. The information below should be considered by students with disabilities as they prepare for transition to higher education.

In January of 2011 the U.S. Court of Appeals for the 9th Circuit upheld the ruling in the case of //[|Enyart v. The National Conference of Bar Examiners, Inc.]// (2011)//. This case dealt with the use of assistive technology while taking the California Bar Examination. In the ruling, the 9th Circuit used an interpretation of statute [|28 C.F.R. § 36.309]on examination and courses: //

// The examination is selected and administered so as to **best ensure** that, when the examination is administered to an individual with a disability that impairs sensory, manual, or speaking skills, the examination results accurately reflect the individual’s aptitude or achievement level or whatever other factor the examination purports to measure, rather than reflecting the individual’s impaired sensory, manual, or speaking skills (28 C.F.R. § 36.309[b][1][i]). //

An important aspect of this statement is the phrase “best ensure.” The phrase “best ensure” is a substantial departure from the long-held standard that accommodations should be “reasonable/effective” ([|Heyward, 2011, para 2]).

This ruling could have implications for students with disabilities and higher education institutions. In approving and denying accommodations, disability service providers must make certain that they have a sound rationale rooted in the disability documentation submitted by the student. For students with disabilities, it will be even more important that the documentation submitted be thorough and comprehensive. As documentation will likely be even more highly scrutinized, students submitting disability documentation not meeting the standards outlined by an institution of higher education may not receive the accommodations that they prefer.

Another important aspect of //Enyart v. The National Conference of Bar Examiners, Inc//. (2011) is that the court ruled that use (or lack of use) of an accommodation in the past “ignores completely the advances in assistive technology over time. These changes also affect which type of accommodation meets the ‘best ensure’ standard” ( No. C 09-05191 CRB; p. 21, Line 6 ).

The importance of this statement for institutions of higher education is that decisions regarding the “best ensure” standard cannot be made by simply reviewing previous accommodations. Institutions of higher education must be fully aware of the technology that exists at the moment and, when considering student accommodation requests, determine if they are supported by disability documentation. Essentially, prior use or lack of use of a specific accommodation does not mean that an accommodation meets or does not meet the “best ensure” standard. For students with disabilities, this once again underscores the importance of thorough documentation.

Students with disabilities are increasing in numbers within higher education (Henderson, 1999; [|National Center for Education Statistics [NCES, 2011]]). Given increased rates of enrollment over the past two decades, the number of students with disabilities in higher education can be expected to continue to grow. At present, data indicate that 11% of enrolled students in higher education are students with disabilities (NCES, 2011).

While increasing rates of students with disabilities are pursuing higher education, much work needs to be done to improve retention and graduation rates. When compared to their peers without disabilities, statistics show disappointing outcomes in terms of graduation rates (38% of students with disabilities graduate as opposed 51% of their peers without disabilities; Newman, Wagner, Cameto, & Knokey, 2009). Additional attention will need to be paid to the academic and psycho-social experiences of this unique and increasing population to improve retention and graduation rates.

Research is beginning to note potential reasons for failure to persist among students with disabilities in higher education. Stated reasons include poor secondary preparation for the transition to higher education (Janiga & Costenbader, 2002), negative campus climate (Beilke & Yssel, 1999; Rao, 2004), poor attitude and motivation, substance abuse, unrealistic expectation of performance, and disability denial (Vogel & Adelman, 1992). Exploration into reasons students fail to persist and interventions to improve retention and graduation are needed.

**Internet Resources**
==

== While not an exhaustive list, a variety of online resources exist to assist students with the college search, application process, and transition. In addition to the resources available via the internet, secondary guidance and college counseling offices may have a variety of other tools that can be used by students and parents.

Offers virtual campus tours of colleges and universities from around the nation.
 * [|CampusTours]**

A searchable database of over 7,000 colleges and universities. Includes information about degree programs at a variety of domestic and international institution types.
 * [|College Atlas]**

The company that offers the SAT provides a wealth of information regarding college planning and the college search. Offering a searchable database of nearly 4,000 colleges and universities, the “Support Services” filter allows you to search institutions by the disability supports that they offer.
 * [|College Board]**

A new tool from the Federal Government, College Navigator offers a searchable database of colleges and univeristies.
 * [|College Navigator]**

This federal website provides information on financial aid. Applications for federal students aid are processed through this website. Additionally, the site offers the FAFSA4caster which can be used to **estimate** your eligibility for financial aid.
 * [|Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA)]**

This is a site designed specifically for students with disabilities and their families. It provides tips and suggestions for preparing for academic and social life at college. Through modules and videos, students can learn more about their needs and what they must be prepared for during the college search process and in college.
 * [|Going to College]**

A comprehensive website, visitors will find a variety of useful information regarding transition to higher education. Through modules, fact sheets, and articles, the site provides information on accommodations, accessibility, and a variety of other important disability-related topics.
 * [|HEATH Resource Center]**

Is a site geared toward the prospective student athlete. The site connects coaches, admission officers, and students in an effort to help students find college matches. Additionally, Kaarme offers a particular page dedicated to student athletes with disabilities in their “ Comprehensive Learning Disability College Directories” section.
 * [|Kaarme]**

While not solely for students transitioning to higher education, this site has a section on transition to college that could prove useful to many students with learning disabilities and their parents. The site includes a wealth of information on disability-related topics including laws, accommodations, and disability support programs.
 * [|LD.org]**

Is a site that provides information for students, parents, and educators on the topic of postsecondary education for students with intellectual/developmental disabilities. The site contains information regarding preparing, understanding, and financing college. Additionally, the website contains personal stories and blogs of students who are or who have made the transition to college.
 * [|Think College]**

Beilke, J. R., & Yssel, N. (1999). The chilly climate for students with disabilities in higher education. //College Student Journal, 33//(3), 364-372.

Enyart v. The National Conference of Bar Examiners, Inc. No. 10-15286 (2011).

Gallaudet University. (2012). //History of Gallaudet University//. Retrieved from []

//Hart, D., Grigal, M., Sax, C., Martinez, D. & Will, M. (2006). Postsecondary education options for students with intellectual disabilities,// //Research to Practice, 45//. Boston: Institute for Community Inclusion, University of Massachusetts. Retrieved from [|//http://www.communityinclusion.org/article.php?article_id=178//]

Henderson, C. (1999). //College freshmen with disabilities: Statistical year 1998//. Washington, DC: American Council on Education.

Heyward, S. (2011, August 2). //The battle over access to technology rages on//. Retrieved from []

Hiester, M., Nordstrom, A., & Swenson, L. M. (2009). Stability and change in parental attachment and adjustment outcomes during the first semester transition to college life. //Journal of College Student Development, 50//(5), 521-538.

Janiga, S. J., & Costenbader, V. (2002). The transition from high school to postsecondary education for students with learning disabilities: A survey of college service coordinators. //Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35//(5), 462-468.

Keller, H. (2003). //The story of my life//. New York: Norton.

Library of Congress. (n.d.). America’s story from America’s library: Helen Keller. Retrieved from []

Madaus, J. W., & Shaw, S. F. (2004). Section 504: Differences in the regulations for secondary and postsecondary education. Intervention in School and Clinic, 40(2), 81-87.

Madaus, J. W. (2005). Navigating the college transition maze: A guide for students with learning disabilities. //TEACHING Exceptional Children, 37//(3), 32-37.

Madaus, J. W. (2011). The history of disability services in higher education. //New Directions for Higher Education, 154//, 5-15. doi 10.1002/he.429

McGuire, J. M., & Shaw, S. F. (1989).//Resource guide of support services for students with learning disabilities in// //Connecticut colleges and universities// (Rev.ed.) Storrs, CT: A .J. Pappanikou Center on Special Education and Rehabilitation: A University Affiliated Program, University of Connecticut. (Revised, 1996).

National Center for Education Statistics. (2011, April). Postsecondary education. //Digest of Education Statistics: 2010//. Retrieved from []

Newman, L., Wagner, M., Cameto, R., & Knokey, A.-M. (2009). //The Post-High School Outcomes of Youth with Disabilities up to 4 Years After High School.// //(Report No. NCSER 2009-3017).// Menlo Park, CA: SRI International. Retrieved from [|www.nlts2.org/reports/2009_04/nlts2_report_2009_04_complete.pdf].

Newman, L., Wagner, M., Cameto, R., Knokey, A.M., & Shaver, D. (2010). //Comparisons Across Time of the Outcomes of Youth With Disabilities up to 4 Years After// High School. A Report of Findings from the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2). Menlo Park, CA: SRI International. Retrieved from [|www.nlts2.org/reports/2010_09/nlts2_report_2010_09_complete.pdf].

Parade, S. H., Leerkes, E. M., & Blankson, A. N. (2010). Attachment to parents, social anxiety, and close relationships of female students over the transition to college. //Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39//(2), 127-137. doi 10.1007/s10964-009-9396-x

Pascarella, E. T., & Terenzini, P. T. (2005). //How college affects students: A third decade of research//. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Rao, S. (2004). Faculty attitudes and students with disabilities in higher education: A literature review. //College Student Journal, 38//(2), 191-198.

Shaw, S. F., & Madaus, J. W. (2008). Preparing school personnel to implement Section 504. //Intervention in School and Clinic, 43//(4), 226-230.

Sutton v. United Airlines, Inc., 527 U.S. 471 (1999).

Think College. (2012). Differences between high school and college. Retrieved from []

Toyota Motor MFG., KY., Inc. v. Williams, 534 U.S. 184 (2002).

Vogel, S. A., & Adelman, P. B. (1992). The success of college students with learning disabilities. //Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25//(7), 430-441. doi:10.1177/002221949202500703